An example of a cuisine that shifted from inedible to edible is the Mexican Cuisine. At one point, it was regarded as totally inedible and unfit for consumption.
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[order_calculator]Directly, esoteric is how we understand ourselves while exoteric refers to how we comprehend others. Reflexively, esoteric is how we understand other people’s understanding of us while exoteric refers to how others realize our understanding of them.
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[order_calculator]Drink falls under food ways because they define the cultural practices of a certain group because every cultural group is defined by what they eat.
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[order_calculator]Carnivalesque refers to the satirical method involving mocking or humoring traditional social hierarchy or authority. For instance, the studies regarding the rites of passage are considered carnivalesque.
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Favorite AD
The best advertisement was posted by collaboration between the Mumbai Traffic department and Vasir breweries. The advertisement showed the unopened cap on a bottle of beer from Vasir breweries. The cap of the drink had a drawing of a vehicle in perfect shape and condition. The next part of the advertisement showed the same bottle cap that had been partly twisted by an opener. The image of the vehicle on the cap was now malformed as if the car had crashed. Lastly, the third part of the advert showed the back of the cap which had “Don’t Drink and Drive” inscribed on it.
The advertisement had the main objective of deterring people from engaging in drunk driving. A large percentage of car accidents are caused by drunken drivers. Under the influence of alcohol, individuals have impaired judgment, lower visual abilities, poor hand-eye coordination and a general low awareness of the environment (Solomon 14). The advertisement intended to stress upon people who indulge in alcohol to regulate their intake and more specifically, to desist from driving vehicles when under the influence as it could lead to car accidents and loss of life as well as damage to property (Solomon 12).
The theme goes well with the editorial environment in which the Vasir breweries advertisement was placed. The choice of Internet was very well informed because a large part of the population uses internet services for most of their everyday jobs such as researching, checking emails, networking and purchasing goods and services. The advertisement therefore stood the highest chance of being viewed if it was posted on the internet. The images in themselves were self-explanatory and required no extra wording. The advertisement in itself was simple, straightforward and relevant to most people who indulge in alcohol. The designers used three basic pictures to convey an important message that would save the lives of many people.
The personality of the advertisement matches the product being advertised. Their advertisement lacked any models or people making viewers focus on the drink itself as well as the consequences of drinking too much of the product. The advertisement held with it enough emphasis on the dangers of drinking too much and driving without necessarily going into the details and saying it word for word. It must not be forgotten that, in the process of reminding consumers not to overindulge in alcohol consumptions, Vasir Breweries were also advertising their own product in a subtle and indirect way (Atkin 23).
The most appealing and notable part of the advertisement was the second image showing the partly twisted bottle cap and subsequently, the crashed car. The designers chose the Volvo model as it was a more expensive and exquisite car. An image of the superb Volvo being crashed because of drunk driving was bound to have an immense effect on alcohol consumers and male drinkers. The focus on vehicles as the main advertising tool was to attract male drinkers who made up a larger part of drunken drivers as compared to females. The advertisement was therefore intriguing to most alcohol drinkers.
Personally, I am an average consumer of Vasir Breweries products particularly their beer. The advertisement made much sense to me as I also own a car and often drive myself after a drinking session. I have also experienced a few minor accidents caused by my misjudgment when I was under the influence of alcohol (Atkin 24). The advertisement can be said to be effective in that it will persuade non-drinkers of alcohol to desist from taking the first bottle. For people who drink alcohol, the advertisement on top of each bottle serves as a constant reminder of what might happen to them if they choose to drink and drive. One cannot however accept the fact that some people might acknowledge the advertisement as important while sober but disregard the warning underneath the bottle cap after having a few bottles of beer or wine.
Work cited
Atkin C. K. Mass Communication Effects on Drinking and Driving. Department of Communication, Michigan State University. Accessed on 24 October 2012. Retrieved fromhttp://210.240.189.212/ntcu9400/9402/9422/ftp/3_class/00_full_paper/AEL092325_Mass%20Communication%20Effects%20on%20Drinking%20and%20Driving_粘毓華.pdf
Solomon, M G. The 2006 National Labor Day Impaired Driving Crackdown: Drunk Driving, Over the Limit, Under Arrest. Washington, D.C.: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 2008. Print
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[order_calculator]Both Karl Marx and Thomas More reflected on the notion of an ideal political and communal society. Both intellectuals advocated for the absence or abolition of private ownership. In his book, Utopia, Thomas More, in the book’s fictional setting, asserted no private ownership of private property in the land of the fictional land, Utopia. He further implied that such goods should be stored in warehouses and be availed to people at their request. Karl Marx routed for the abolition of private property in the society to hinder the higher class from exploiting the low class. However, the two theorists disagreed on the creation of an ideal society and thus provided differing reasons for their belief in the advantage of a communal society in servicing people.
The goal of the society, according to Thomas More and Karl Marx were not deviated form each other. According to More, society’s goal is centered around each member of the society focusing on the public good rather than each individual’s personal interests. With respect to Marx, society is supposed to be classless: a goal that mainly comprises the provision of equal opportunities for every member. More also identified the existence of a classless society by creating the fictional communal land, Utopia which according to its communist policies, enhanced equality among people and encouraged abolition of private property in the land. Despite the goals of society, Marx noted that society was merely a combination of individual conflicts with each person striving to respond to personal needs. Struggle and social conflict were the main attributes of social growth in society. In Thomas More’s book, Utopia, the fictitious character, Hythloday asserts that the intended and original goal for society was disregarded. In fact, society was characterized by greed cemented by individuality exuded from each person striving to achieve personal goals (More, 60).
Both Marx and More have different reasons pertaining to the communal society. Both theorists identified the role and importance of property in the society. Both agree that property is responsible for the stratification of the society in classes that comprised the oppressed and the oppressors. With respect to the fictitious character Hythloday, More believed that the communal property would lead to a fair and balanced society (communal society). Through his example of Utopia, More alluded that the communal property would be beneficial to the members of the society, however in terms of a real society, abolition of private property could never work. More surmised that the perfect common wealth could not be achieved with abolition of private property. Furthermore, the communal society is a positive but unreachable goal since More takes up a more social approach, which he defines as pragmatic explaining the inconsistencies of Utopia compared to those of the real society (More, 86). Through the fictional character of Hythloday in the book, More represents similar views with Marx on the abolition of private property. In the book, More asserts that private property should be abolished and communal property established. This is because private property leads to the oppression of the many poor people in the society and satisfies only the few in the society who are rich. Additionally, More, through Hythloday, states that the rich are in unsatisfactory contentment for fear of the large masses of the poor are discontent. In contrast, More asserts that communal property reduces the prosperity achieved by the productivity of the members of the society. This is because people will have no incentive to work because their needs will be provided by other people’s labors (More, 156). The lack of private property will eliminate total respect for the authority and lead to civil strife and an increase in bloodshed and conflict.
Karl Marx has different reasons on the role of property in the community. According to Marx, the ownership of property is essential in understanding the society. This is because the class struggles between the poor and the rich of society were determined by the ability to acquire and possess property. Therefore, with relation to Marxist ideas regarding class conflict, ownership of property played a divisive role among the members of the society indicated by the warring classes. He agrees with More’s foremost views that communal property should be reinstated and private property be abolished. This is because, according to Marx (15), the Bourgeoisie class in the society, which represents the owners of factors of production in the society, is able to exploit the Proletariat who represent the working class in the society. Additionally, the bourgeoisie is able to exploit them because they are able to obtain the private property and utilize it for personal gain. Hence, in doing so, the owners will require the working class to provide labor for them at a wage that does not fit their workload. However, the proletariats have no choice but to work under oppression since they depend on the wages to cater for their basic needs and wants. Consequently, Marx’s disagreements with More are based on the inconsistency of communal property. Marx (26) asserts that abolition of private property is achievable and since it would equalize the two classes and later avert the position of power in terms of social revolution from the bourgeois to the proletariats thereby creating a classless society.
In conclusion, both More and Marx focused on a society that would provide equal opportunities for all despite their conditions of the prevailing social order. Both agreed that society was divided into classes that saw a particular group of people undergoing oppression at the hands of another group. However, to effect change in the society, each person’s wants and needs have to be addressed, which seems unrealistic since the factors of distribution can never be equal among people because of the varying degree of needs. Indeed, before social order is defined, there will always be struggle among classes in the society.
Works Cited
Marx, Karl and Friedrich Engels. The Communist Manifesto. London: Verso, 1998. Print.
More, Thomas. Utopia. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999. Print.
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How the portrayal of forensic science in media (CSI, for example) has influenced the court system
Forensic sciences
Forensic science refers to the usage of a broad range of sciences to give answers to questions of concern in legal systems and scientific studies. The term forensics and forensic science are used interchangeably to mean the scientific investigation that serves to give evidence to a question from the courts. The science involves the application of biology, physics, chemistry and other branches to come up with unique evidence that eliminates other possibilities and explicitly identifies an individual. The use of forensic science knowledge has been exploited by three main bodies: law enforcement agencies, the media and perpetrators of criminal activities.
In criminal history, it proved difficult to prove that suspected criminals were guilty beyond doubt. Court proceedings depended on the confessions that were sometimes coerced and corrupted as well as testimonies from witnesses. Elements of forensics began developing in Ancient China where the Song Dynasty solved many crimes using answers that were biological in nature. Modern forensics developed around the 16th century in Europe where French and Italian army doctors came up with various categories of how soldiers died for instance strangulation, drowning and poisoning. These developments were recorded in documents such as A Treatise on Forensic Medicine and Public Health and The Complete System of Police Medicine (Ramsland 27).
Toward the end of the 19th century, forensics began developing more and even subdivided into more branches that specialized on specific aspects of forensics. Some of the major areas in forensic science include criminalistics, digital forensics, forensic anthropology, forensic DNA analysis and mobile device forensics among other subfields. These subdivisions and manifestations of forensic science have greatly improved the quality and efficiency of the legal system since it is now easier to prove that an individual is innocent or guilty of a crime. Scholars who have been influential in the development of forensic science over the years include Alphonse Bertillon, Alexandre Lacassagne and Wilton M. Krogman.
The reasons behind looking to science to aid in improving the quality of services of the legal system revolve around changes in crime and law enforcement techniques. First, there are increasing incidences of crimes happening within the neighborhoods and the city centers. These crimes range from petty offenders such as pickpockets to organized gang robbery. There are also changes in the constitution and other relevant legal documents, such as the penal code, that have forced law enforcers to turn to science for assistance. The advent of new crimes and weapons such as terrorism using biological and digital weapons necessitated the scientific intervention to reduce such attacks. The media have been crucial in disseminating information on forensic science through the various movies, TV shows, documentaries and news sections (Newton 128).
Some of the notable TV series that became famous for their inclusion of forensic techniques include Sherlock Holmes, created by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle in 1887, who used forensic science in his investigation of criminal methods. Agatha Christie also employed forensic qualities in her publications such as Hercule Poirot. More recent television series include The Mentalist and CSI Miami. The development of the plot of most television dramas has closely followed the changes in the legal system and the law enforcement. To this extent, the media has been hugely influential in changing the perceptions that people have about forensic science in crime solving. In this section, the influence of the media on the legal system will be the main subject of discussion.
Forensics science specifically fingerprint evidence was not popular within legal systems until the 1980s when it was first experimented with at the Illinois Supreme Court. Clarence Hiller had been murdered in his home. Thomas Jennings was the main suspect who was caught in the possession of a revolver and unused bullets from the Hiller’s home. Four fingerprints belonging to Jennings were also found on the crime scene that helped the jury to convict him. Since then, fingerprint evidence was embraced as a valid source of evidence and could be used as enough material to convict a suspect.
Bernard Knight, a chief pathologist for the British government commented that television crime programs have done a lot of damage in raising the expectations of jurors and judges within the legal system. Most television series such as CSI Miami exaggerate the collection of evidence, the presentation of cases and the decision of juries to an extent that has influenced the attitudes, standards and decisions of jury panels. The current generations of jurors have come to demand more resounding proof than forensic science can deliver. The wide berth between fiction and reality makes it even more difficult to rectify the situation.
Terming it as a “CSI effect”, the pathologist defined the phenomenon as that of jurors having impractical prospects of forensic evidence and investigation methods and having an increased concentration in the discipline of forensic science. These sentiments were echoed by Evan Durnal, an employee at the Criminal Justice Department in the University of Central Missouri. He also argued that increased prevalence of investigative television series have transformed how the American legal system conducted its trials. One of the most obvious assumptions made was that jurors thought they had a detailed understanding of forensic science after viewing such programs on TV (Newman 34).
In reality, they do not. The process of selecting juries has also been lengthened in order to ensure that potential jurors did not use television standards to judge scientific evidence. Courtrooms have been converted into debate areas where prosecutors and lawyers attempt to school juries on why certain pieces of evidence can or cannot be considered relevant in the court. This has led to new development such as negative evidence witnesses whose function is to clarify that investigators may at some point fall short of finding evidence at crime scenes. This has diluted and corrupted the real purpose of the courtroom as a place where trials are heard and judgment passed.
Defense lawyers are equally affected by the CSI effect since they can benefit from misguided ideas that science offers jurors. Using this argument, defense lawyers can then argue that there lacks incriminating scientific evidence, which will constitute reasonable doubt. This can provide grounds for acquittal of a suspect. However, the CSI effect can also produce negative consequences for defense lawyers. This happens when they are summoned to explain the close similarity between a television drama’s devices, such as fingerprint or DNA matching, and the fingerprint database at a local police department computer. In such cases, their client could end up being found guilty thanks to the jurors’ inquisitiveness and pre-knowledge of television programs (Kiely 27).
The problem with prioritizing scientific techniques as the main standard in determining a person’s guilt or innocence is that forensic evidence is based on complex probabilities. Take the case of fingerprint evidence, where an expert categorically comments that his method has a 90% chance of finding the owner of the print, and an infinity chance is someone else who was not related to the case left the prints. DNA evidence has proved to be more accurate, but experts in this field still claim to work with probabilities and not certainties. Jailing an innocent man or setting free a perpetrator of wrong deeds based on probabilities distorts the whole concept of justice.
Conversely, the media and production houses strive to produce reality drama shows that include sophisticated police equipment and applying the real laws from the constitution. While this makes for quality drama, criminals also watch these shows and slowly refine their techniques to use these loopholes and get away with law breaking activities. More murderers now use bleach to kill any DNA on the crime scene. They also wear gloves and prefer to tape shut any envelopes than licking them. This gives investigators more trouble, as they have to cover crime scenes with a fine toothcomb that may sometimes yield no evidence. This develops into a trend where more and more unsolved cases are shelved for future reference creating a backlog of cases at the courts.
As much as the use of forensic evidence can be said to be changing the way in which justice is meted out, it has greatly refined the quality of court trials. In one relevant case, jurors inquired whether a certain piece of evidence had been tested for possible DNA matches. It had been tested but had not been entered as part of the evidence. The inclusion of the negative DNA results ultimately exonerated the defendant, and he was acquitted. To that extent, both Evan Durnal and Bernard knight acknowledge that the makers of television shows are not to blame for the effect that they have had on the justice system. It remains the responsibility of the lawyers, judges and other stakeholders in the legal system to determine when to consider forensic evidence as valid and useful (Embar-Seddon et al 56).
` As was mentioned above, crime-solving television drams have significantly increased public awareness on the position that science holds in gathering evidence and solving crimes. However, some key differences set aside real crime investigation and television dramas. Television shows have professionals who are armed, making interrogations and arrests, as well. These television stars normally receive their DNA and fingerprints results almost instantly. In real life investigation, pathologists and scientists are not equipped with guns and body armor. They also lack the authority to make interrogations and arrests, as it is a job left for the area police. Real forensic results also take exceptionally long before they can be gotten and used. In fact, the fastest
There has been much criticism leveled at the increased influence of the media on the legal systems in most countries. Of particular importance, is the focus on the forensic methods used to determine whether a person’s DNA or fingerprints were found at the scene or on the victim. Since the adoption of forensic methods in courts, over half of the convictions passed on suspects, were based on invalidated or inappropriate forensic science presented by professionals. First, forensic scientists have been elevated to the level of a juror or a judge in that their recommendations will eventually convict or acquit a person.
Forensic scientists are always summoned after all the evidence has been presented by the defendant’s lawyer or state that brings out the perception that these scientists hold the key that turns the tide of the case. Coupled with the “CSI effect” bias that was mentioned earlier, jurors are manipulated to depend on science to determine the fate of suspects. The problem is that this number of unfair convictions could even be larger (Begley 12). This is because no studies have been done to determine if different human DNA samples may be similar in structure and might unwittingly link to the wrong person. To that extent, invalid forensic results might have helped to convict the wrong people. The best attempt at forensic science that can be depended upon would be fingerprinting which is better than studying handwritings, dental formulas and shoe sizes.
On their part, most legal professionals have lost their own skills and resorted to science. Jurors have been given the wrong impression television programs like by CSI, Bones, and the notion that science will always prevail. Many members of the jury, panels of judges and the bar agree that they need to step up their modus operandi and their reliability on forensic techniques. Groups up against the overindulgence in forensic science such as National Organization of Criminal Defense Lawyers have made campaigns that call for the reforms of the sector. They argue that, over a decade, crime lab investigations have shown that forensic evidence brought before the court is often bogus and is based on speculations, poor quality control, and subjective understanding.
A case study of the extent of misuse of forensic science can be the Maguire Seven case where the convictions were quashed, and the forensic scientists exonerated because of the forensic results that were tampered with. The family members were convicted based on the forensic results that revealed traces of nitroglycerine on their hands. On these grounds alone, the whole family was thrown into jail. However, their acquittal was later considered because the forensic tests themselves were too flawed to be reliable. The case of Fred Zain from West Virginia is also relevant in questioning the role forensic science plays in law (Adler et al 34).
In the Fred Zain case, he was entrusted with giving valuable information on forensics that was used to convict many people. Unfortunately, he had clinched the position on false credentials that meant that his recommendations were not qualified and accurate. These two examples are a clear indication of the extent to which the media has integrated low-level, superficial science into the minds of decision makers such as juries and pathologists who determine the fate of an individual.
Work cited
Adler, Joanna R, and Jacqueline M. Gray. Forensic Psychology: Concepts, Debates and Practice. Abingdon: Willan, 2010. Accessed on 24 October 2012. Retrieved from http://lists.lib.portsmouth.ac.uk/items/7AE1E27C-26B6-4A69-5759-A78076CA7382.html
Begley S. But it works on TV! The Daily Beast Accessed on 24 October 2012. Retrieved from http://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/2010/03/31/but-it-works-on-tv.html
Embar-Seddon, Ayn, and Allan D. Pass. Forensic Science. Pasadena, Calif: Salem Press, 2009. Print.
Kiely, Terrence F. Forensic Evidence: Science and the Criminal Law. Boca Raton, Fla: CRC Press, 2001. Print
Newman, Robert C. Computer Forensics: Evidence Collection and Management. Boca Raton, FL: Auerbach Publications, 2007. Print.
Newton, David E. DNA Evidence and Forensic Science. New York: Facts on File, 2008. Print
Ramsland K. CSI: Without a clue, a new report forces police and judges to rethink forensic science. New York Post. Accessed on 24 October 2012. Retrieved fromhttp://www.nypost.com/p/news/opinion/opedcolumnists/item_cZHjTuCHuisPQlUkw
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1. There are different norms that can be violated in the society. For instance, a moral crusade can choose behavior such as gun ownership and seek for it to be ascribed as deviant.
2a). One crusader exudes economic interest. Economic interests are the financial incentives received from participation of the society in addressing the behaviors advocated by the moral crusade. Hence, the crusader seeks to raise his or her economic status by taking advantage of the various methods used to raise awareness of gun ownership.
b). Another crusader exhibits an interest in social control. Social control refers to the society’s conformity to norms and rules. The crusader seeking social control attempts to take advantage of the crusade’s advocacy in order to enforce regulations against gun ownership in the society, which will label the act as deviant.
c). Another crusader asserts moral superiority as an interest. Moral superiority defines an individual’s declarations based on the morality of his or her actions. By expressing moral superiority in the crusade, the crusader believes that his actions and position on gun ownership as deviant are justified.
d). Guilt is also another interest expressed by one of the crusaders. Guilt acknowledges the emotion accruing from violating a norm. Hence, the crusader experiencing guilt will use the group as a platform to defend the past deviant acts he or she performed by advocating for the labeling of gun ownership as a deviant act.
3. The crusaders will frame gun ownership as a criminal problem. This is because the modest rules governing the ownership of such dangerous weapons allow any person to acquire them. Hence, framing gun ownership on criminal basis will be due to the accruing actions arising from acquiring guns.
4. A legitimate claim made by the crusaders relates to the crusade being able to raise awareness on the dangers of gun ownership. The society will benefit because rules will be created to illegalize gun ownership since it increases criminal acts. A normative claim is the flexibility to commit a crime. The rules governing gun ownership are not restrictive allowing criminal enthusiasts to acquire weapons. This will lead to the increase in criminal acts such as robbery and violence in society.
5. The crusade will succeed because gun ownership is directly proportional to the rate of crime in the society. Thus, society will support such a move and class gun ownership as a deviant act. Secondly, gun ownership affects every person in the society, and such a controversial matter can raise the need to create restrictive laws on gun ownership by the government.
Gender and Deviance
Option 1
1a). Gender, perceived sexuality and bullying are linked because they are responsible for the behaviors young people exhibit. For instance, the male child seeks to prove what is related to his male gender. However, some activities that some males engage in force them to become bullied by other males who refer the activity in terms of the female sexuality hence referring to the male as a girl or a homosexual.
b). Bullying has a negative effect on the males. Since males are expected to engage in activities that are masculine, some activities males engage in are considered feminine leading to violence. In terms of gender hierarchy, bullying forces the males to be less confident about their masculinity. This leads to the superiority of women to men since men are viewed as weak. In most societies, men have always been superior to women. Their masculinity enhances their ego and confidence over women. However, bullying causes men to lose their ego and reject their sexuality.
c). Boys react negatively to bullying resorting to violence evidenced by the increase in school shootings. This is because boys strive to prove their masculinity. Girls, on the other hand, do not react negatively to bullying since it does not reference their attitudes towards their sexuality since it does not affect them. Furthermore, social norms do not expect girls to prove their sexuality but force the males to do so which contributes to boys’ negative reaction.
2a). Different from traditional bullying, electronic bullies do not reveal their identity through platforms such as provisional email accounts. Furthermore, cyber bullying does not limit the number of bullies, unlike traditional bullying. Cyber bullying does not recognize gender thus it is possible for anyone to be bullied unlike traditional bullying, which is mostly centered, on males. However, cyber bulling provides an advantage over traditional bullying for the victim because he or she can choose to avoid it by avoiding the medium of communication such as the chat room.
Colonial Latin America
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Colonial Latin America
It is evident through history that the Spanish conquest of the Americas was more superficial than real. As much as the Mexica and other indigenous tribes were defeated in battle, they found other means to resist the control of the Spanish. The Spanish conquest began as a series of explorations to other foreign lands that they wanted to discover. The renowned researcher Christopher Columbus was the first person who suggested these expeditions. However, the catholic monarchs who ruled Spain at the time were not in support of the idea. The Queen of Castile, Isabella I was the first member of the royal family to accept the suggestions made by Columbus. With the consent of the monarchs, the expeditions began which resulted in the discovery of the Americas.
From this information, the colonization of the Americas was unintentional. This is because they had not planned to take over and control these lands. They came across them by chance and took the advantage by declaring them their colonies. Their main aim was to increase the areas under Spanish rule and to control the trade that was taking place there (Marley, 2008). If they had comprehensively planned the conquest of the Americas, their conquest would have been more authentic. It took a long time for the Spaniards to lay claim over the Americas, and this is another sign of weakness on their part. They took a long time in order to avoid causing discord with the native inhabitants if these regions (Diaz, Cohen & Radice, 2009).
However, even with the long time it took, the natives were not impressed by the idea of being under the rule of a foreign empire. The native inhabitants had their own systems of government and they were content with them. Therefore, the local communities did not accept infiltration of the Spanish into their territory. This resulted in the emergence of resistances to oppose the rule of the Spaniards. The consistencies of these rebellions led to the Spanish American wars of independence, which took place in the 19th century. The leaders of these wars were called ‘Libertadores’ which meant liberators in Spanish and Portuguese (Andrien, 2001). Most of them were natives born of European heritage. They also had some military training from Spain; this helped them a lot in the war. In addition to this, they had been influenced by liberalism and this was their motivation.
They lead the rebellion against the Spanish armies even though they did not have the same amount of armor. This may have been a probable reason for their defeat in the first wars that took place. Another reason why the Spanish conquest was superficial was that their rule was not well established in the Americas. When their rule is compared to the other colonialists in the world like the British, for example, several differences arise. In the case of the British, they were undoubtedly in control of all the areas they had conquered. The hierarchy of rule and the method they used to govern the countries that they had colonized evidenced this. On the other hand, the Spaniards did not have a definite hierarchy and governance technique. This made their rule weak and facilitated the rise of rebellions in the countries they had colonized (Burkholder & Johnson, 2010).
If the Spaniards had planned their conquest more effectively, their rule may have been considered more real than superficial. This is because the possibility of rebellions arising at the beginning of their invasion would have been avoided. In addition to this, the natives would have more respect for them if they had a more sophisticated method of governance. This is because they would consider the Spaniards more superior to them and therefore, respect them more. However, since their governance was the same as their native ones, they had no reason to respect them. Consequently, the Spaniard invasion and conquest of the Americas was unsuccessful and superficial.
References
Andrien, K. J. (2001). Andean worlds: Indigenous history, culture, and consciousness under Spanish rule, 1532-1825. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press.
Burkholder, M. A., & Johnson, L. L. (2010). Colonial Latin America. New York: Oxford University Press.
Díaz, C. B., Cohen, J. M., & Radice, B. (2009). The conquest of New Spain. London: Clays
Ltd., Penguin.
Marley, D. (2008). Wars of the Americas: A chronology of armed conflict in the New World, 1492 to the present. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
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Understanding the War on Terror 3rd Edition by Patrick Coaty
Terrorism is not a matter characterized by present times. The vice, which has no legal binding has been around since the past affecting every political system in the world. However, terrorism is not based on bombs and other explosive ammunition: it is also based on the rebellious activities individuals take to voice out their distress with the current governments. Such protests force governments to label them as terrorists hence creating conflict between the rebels and the government. Thus, it is important to analyze the validation for the war on terror by evaluating past incidences that characterize terrorism.
Terrorism has been accredited because of power imbalances. This is evidenced by the French Revolution, which saw the overthrow of the monarchy from power resulting into a democratic system. Moreover, the revolution sparked the need to overthrow monarchial rule in Europe. The Bolshevik Uprising was also deemed terrorist since it ousted aristocratic rule in Russia (Coaty, 84). However, both revolutions implied the murder of innocent civilians related to the royal families hence deeming the revolutions as terrorist. Moreover, the international community defines terrorism as violent acts carried out against innocent civilians hence surmising that the uprisings advocated for terrorism.
Terrorism is also associated with the First and the Second World War. This is characterized by the various injustices carried out in Europe. The Holocaust was one of the historical events that indicated the height of terrorism. Close to 800000 Jews were massacred by the Nazi under the leadership of the German, Adolf Hitler, because of the negative feelings delved towards the Treaty of Versailles, which accused Germany as the instigator of the war. The Vietnam War also characterized terrorism. At first, the Vietnamese sought independence from their French colonialists but led to more division among the locals on political terms thus leading to the Cold War. The war was an exploitative measure by the United States to control communism. However, in doing so, the country experienced massive violent attacks that led to the deaths of innocent civilians, which also affected neighboring nations (Coaty, 240).
The “War on Terror” is a term used to describe the military campaign instigated by the United States and supported by its allies such as the United Kingdom, France, and Germany among others. The term was used by the Bush administration to refer to the war on Iraq especially after the attacks on September 11 on the World Trade Center in New York. Ever since, the Bush administration engaged in an invasion of Iraq and bolstered the occupation of Afghanistan. These two countries were known supporters of the terrorist organization, al-Qaeda that had claimed responsibility for the various acts of terrorism around the world. The activities of the Bush administration raised questions over the legality of the war and the premise on which this war was based (Lansford, Watson and Covarrubias, 23).
From the end of the eighteenth century, monarchies across were overthrown in a spate of violent revolutions that sought to correct the imbalance of power. The French Revolution is such an example. The revolutionaries took over power from the royal family and descended on the French nobility, executing them in response to the oppression meted on them. This was the beginning of the abolition of monarchical rule in Europe (Lansford, Watson and Covarrubias, 101). These acts, although orchestrated by popular movements in the name of the public, were terrorist acts as the victims included the innocent women and children affiliated to the rulers of these two empires. Blanket application of death sentences to the innocent is one of the hallmarks of terrorist acts.
After the end of the First World War, Germany was unfairly accused of instigating the war and the burden of the war reparations fell on Germany. Germany was not part of the Treaty of Versailles that came to this conclusion. The negative feelings associated with this treaty, and the loss of territory, led to the affiliation of most Germans with the Nazis as Hitler was the first politician to speak out against the injustice of the treaties following the end of the war. This atmosphere created by the alienation of the international community from Germany set the stage for the formation of a polarized Weimar Republic that led to the human injustices characteristic of the Nazi reign. The initial loss of territory spurred Germany’s occupation of Poland that in turn led to the World War II. During the occupation, the Nazi carried out systematic executions of Jews in an event known as the holocaust. The chain of events that led the manifestation of this hatred stem from the perceived injustices committed in the aftermath of the first war (Lansford, Watson and Covarrubias, 135).
The end of World War II brought political divisions among some groups around the world. The world was thus divided into socialists/communists and capitalists. Korea pitted itself into this war based on political and ideological differences. The division arose as an outcome of the polarized war that pitted the US and its allies on one side with the Soviet Union representing the socialists. Korea was thus divided with the north as communists and the south supporting democracy and capitalism. The wars instigated for the purposes of political subjugation of one faction by another are a classic example of the different manner acts of terrorism are manifested (Lansford, Watson and Covarrubias, 169).
The war in Vietnam was a liberative effort on the part of the Vietnamese, from colonial subjugation by western powers like France. Further division among the Vietnamese on political lines saw the escalation of the Cold War with the north receiving support from communist allies and the south from the US and other non-communist countries. The US was heavily involved in the Vietnam War considering the large number of resources and soldiers deployed in the war-torn country. Both sides of the Cold War were involved to ensure that neither profited from the political division of the country to sway it to their side. The US was particularly concerned about the spread of communism to the south, thus the war served to contain the spread. The war finally ended when a treaty was signed twenty years after its commencement (Lansford, Watson and Covarrubias, 207).
Al-Qaeda is the single largest terrorist group with a worldwide reach. The inception of this group is attributable to the association of Osama bin Laden and other Islamist groups around 1988. The global organization calls for Jihad against the west and Israel sympathizers. It was formed because of the western interference in matters involving the Middle East. The government established by Taliban had ties to the Afghan fighters in the war against the Russian invasion. These fighters were loyal to the Taliban, and they influenced the conscription of more youth into al-Qaeda. The organization was funded by wealthy Arabs and bin Laden’s personal fortune (Lansford, Watson and Covarrubias, 67).
Throughout history, the wars fought were based on a difference in ideologies and the perceived enemies were targeted for elimination as a form of cleansing to ensure prosperity. From the French Revolution that eliminated the nobility as the scourge of the working class to Hitler’s Auschwitz that targeted the “eternal Jew”, these acts of terrorism seek to find solutions to problems that are usually heaped on others. The perpetrators of acts of terrorism see no part played by them on the events that led to that undesirable situation. The US has a policy of helping others in wartime. This benevolence has turned out to be blight as the aid given to the Afghanis provided them with the means to rise up against the west, specifically the US. Al-Qaeda turned its frustration with the political state of the Arab region and blamed the US for its state of affairs (Lansford, Watson and Covarrubias, 97).
Acts of terrorism are committed to innocent civilians. There are no terms of war since the attacks are directed towards unsuspecting and unarmed people not part to the disagreements that might have led to the war. The common unifying factor is the presumption of common good that is served by the wanton waste of human life. The wars instigated may have led to better living conditions of the generations that came like in the French Revolution. Some have been driven by the extinction of a certain race as happened during the holocaust. Liberation has been cited in history as the most common cause for these wars, but to no known price. The human life lost in the process fails to justify the war. The preventative war raged against al-Qaeda, and the Gulf region has failed to provide sufficient validation for the deaths of innocent civilians in Afghanistan and Iraq. History has proved that as long as ideologies differ, intolerance reigns supreme and the innocent by-standers lose out. Therefore, the implications of the war on terror could end up heightening tensions between the United States and the Middle Eastern countries. Fear and crisis are the main products that will lead to an increase of mass terrorist activities that could possibly see the rise of another world war.
Works Cited
Coaty, Patrick C. Understanding the War on Terror. Dubuque: Kendall Hunt Pub. Co, 2012. Print.
Lansford, Tom, Robert P. Watson, and Jack Covarrubias. America‘s War on Terror. Farnham, England: Ashgate, 2009. Print.
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Affordable Care Act
The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act is comprised of nine titles that address a crucial element of a reform (Cronin and Aponte, 2012). These include quality and affordable health for the entire American society, the role of public policies and programs, improving the efficiency and quality of health care, preventing chronic illnesses and improving the health of the public, program integrity and transparency, health care labor force, improving access to innovative medical therapies, support of revenue provisions, and assistance services to community living (CCH Incorporated and Wolters Kluwer (2010). This paper discusses two areas that is quality and affordable health for all Americans and preventing chronic illnesses and improving the health of the public. It is aimed at elaborating each of these areas in detail and discussing whether or not they will be successful and the reasons for each case.
Quality and affordable health care for all citizens of America
Provision of affordable health care for individuals is one of the fundamental objectives that the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act is aimed to accomplish. This will be made possible through accomplishing an essential transformation of insurance in health care in America through what is known as shared responsibility. This is because universal reform in the insurance market will eradicate practices that are discriminatory in nature including pre-existing exclusions. However, attaining such reforms without an increase in insurance premiums on health will imply that all citizens should be a part of the system. In addition, tax credits for families and individuals must ensure that insurance is made affordable for every person. The three components are the vital needs of achieving the reform. It is essential to note that health insurance reform may take some time to put into practice. Quality and affordable health care services for individuals can be successfully achieved. Thus, after the achievement of this reform, the act will ensure the elimination unreasonable and lifetime annual limits on benefits, it will forbid rescissions of policies of health insurance, provide support for individuals who are uninsured due to pre-existing conditions, it will necessitate coverage of immunizations and preventive services, establish consistent coverage documents in order for consumers to make comparisons when purchasing health insurance covers, restrict administrative and non-medical expenses, and extend dependant coverage (National Research Council (U.S. et al., 2012).
Other immediate achievements in this area include ensuring that consumers have an easy access to an efficient appeal process and offer them assistance in accessing coverage. Additionally, there is also the creation of a temporary re-insurance policy to support early retirees’ coverage and the establishment of an internet portal to help individuals in identifying options of coverage. In addition, there will be facilitation of administrative simplification in order to lower costs of system costs. These are only achievable if the health insurance reform is achieved. There needs to be implementation of health insurance market reforms. New rules to end medical exclusions should be established across small groups and individual health insurance markets in all states, in America. Insurers should be restricted from setting rates based on a medical condition, health status, genetic information, evidence of domestic violence, claims experience, or other factors related to health. They should also be prohibited from limiting or denying coverage. Premiums should only vary by geography, family structure, tobacco use, actuarial value, age, and participation in a program of promoting health (National Research Council (U.S. et al., 2012).
In order for this area of the act to be successful, there should be offering of a qualified health plan, which must give crucial health benefits including health sharing limits. The system should ensure that the out-of-pocket requirements do not surpass those in Savings Account on health. Coverage should define how much an insurer will pay. Additionally, a plan of people under the age of 30 and those who qualify for an exemption of the individual responsibility requirement should be set up. An Exchange should be established in America to assist small employers and people gain coverage. Plans to be included in the Exchange program should be credited for quality, and should be able to present alternatives in a standardized manner to ensure easy comparison. People who are qualified to gain tax credits must not be legible for insurance coverage. Federal assistance should be available, and states must have the flexibility to set up basic plans for health especially for individuals of lower incomes (American Psychiatric Association, 2012). Other options for reforms should also be explored to ensure success in this area. Making coverage available is, therefore, an essential set towards the achievement of this. This implies that refundable and new tax credits should be made available for individuals with low incomes. The aspect of shared responsibility is crucial for maintaining a minimum vital coverage. If all these aspects are taken into consideration, then there will be successful accomplishment of this area.
Prevention of chronic illnesses and improving public health
In order to better orient the country’s system of health care toward disease prevention and health promotion, a number of initiatives should be available for successful accomplishment of this objective. These initiatives will offer infrastructure and impetus. This requires the establishment of a new interagency prevention council to be supported by a new investment fund in prevention and public health. To achieve this objective, obstacles to access of clinical preventive services will be eradicated. Establishing healthy societies must, therefore, become a priority and a modern and advanced infrastructure should support this objective. The first strategy towards the achievement of this goal is the modernization of illness prevention and public health systems. A new council should be established to facilitate healthy policies and develop a national promotion and prevention strategy. The investment fund is created to offer sustained and expanded investment in the promotion of public health and illness prevention strategy. There should be national health promotion and prevention outreach, as well as, education campaign to increase awareness of activities aimed at preventing diseases and promoting health (American Psychiatric Association, 2012).
For this goal to be attained successfully, there should be increased access to clinical preventive services. This is because the Act approves essential new programs and policies related to preventive health care services. These are aimed at development and operation of health clinics that are school-based, education campaign for an oral health care prevention, provision of Medicare coverage without deductibles or co-payments for welfare visits and establishment of a prevention plan. In addition, they are aimed at waiving deductibles and coinsurance requirements for a majority of preventive services in order for Medicare to cover full costs. Grants should be available to states to offer incentives to beneficiaries of Medicaid in order to take part in programs that offer incentives for healthy lifestyles (Ulmer et al., 2012).
Promoting health starts with preventing illnesses in societies. Therefore, creating healthier societies is important if this is to be attained. Grants should be provided to facilitate health of individuals and community at large and prevent chronic illnesses. Grants should be offered to local and health departments to carry out pilot programs to assess risk factors of chronic disease, carry out interventions on public health, and ensure that people with chronic illnesses or those at risk of contracting the disease are offered clinical or medical treatment in order to reduce the risk associated with chronic disease. Vaccines should be made available for purchase at all times. Restaurants should play their part in promoting good health. There should be support for public health and prevention innovation. This is possible through the provision of funding for funding in systems and services of public health to explore best practices of prevention. This should include federal health programs to gather and report information by ethnicity, primary language, race, and other factors of disparity. Evaluation of practices of promoting healthy wellbeing of employees should also be carried out too (Ulmer et al., 2012). The health of individuals matters as it enhances the lifespan of individuals. Bearing this in mind, all actions should be taken to ensure that individuals are prevented from chronic diseases that cause much suffering and death. If the above measures are effectively and efficiently implemented, then there would be successful accomplishment of goals and objectives of this are of Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act.
References
Cronin, O., & Aponte, P. (2012). The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act: Select elements and entities. New York: Nova Science Pub.
CCH Incorporated., & Wolters Kluwer (Firm). (2010). Law, explanation and analysis of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act: Including Reconciliation Act impact. Chicago, IL: Wolters Kluwer Law & Business.
National Research Council (U.S.)., Shortliffe, E. H., & Millett, L. I. (2012). Strategies and priorities for information technology at the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services. Washington, D.C: National Academies Press.
American Psychiatric Association. (2012). Health care reform: A primer for psychiatrists : the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act : analysis and commentary from APA Publications and the APA Department of Government Relations. Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Pub.
Ulmer, C., Institute of Medicine (U.S.)., & Institute of Medicine (U.S.). (2012). Essential health benefits: Balancing coverage and cost. Washington, D.C:
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